Quality Audits for Improved Performance Essay Example for Free

Quality Audits for Improved Performance Essay Auditing is simply the systematic examination and analysis of data through an independent procedure. Important to note is that auditing is not just about data, it also deals with statements, performances, records and operations. A myth that needs to be demystified is the misconception that auditing deals with financial issues or statements. This is not true. Auditing deals with overall performance, financial or otherwise. Any subject matter, in essence may be audited. Auditing therefore, aims at collecting data upon which is gathers evidence and makes judgment. The prevalence of organized systems of governments as well as businesses way back at around 4000BC necessitated the need for record keeping. These records were both financial and non-financial. These organized governments and businesses needed a way through which they could correctly account for their receipts as w3ell as their disbursements. Moreover, this was a period in which tax collection had just been unvented. There was a need therefore, to ensure that the taxes that were collected by the government could be accounted for to prevent any form of misappropriation of the limited government resources as well as public funds. The consequent need for audits as well as the indication of audits can be traced in Babylonia. This was specifically the public finance systems in Babylonia. The rise of this technique can as well be traced back to city states of Italy, Rome and Greece. Specifically the public finance systems of these areas. The governments in these particular areas had begun to question the authenticity of records that were kept in these areas. The accuracy and competency of officials was also being questioned. As a result, there was a need to come up with a system that could take care of these errors of misappropriation, accuracy and incompetence. In a couple of years, there was a need to come up with a way of making accurate records. The consequence of this is that the European systems of book keeping and auditing were introduced in the Non- European countries. CITATION Den07 l 1033 (Arter, 2007) This saw the introduction of auditing in the United States. During this time, businesses were constant increasing in terms of their sizes as well as their complexities. They also grew in terms of their scope. This growth created the need of the creation of a separate unit that would create assurance, internal assurance to be more specific that would verify the accounting information provided by the company. The verification of this information was very import ant in the sense that the accounting information provided was used in decision making processes. As a result, it was very vital to ensure that the financial information provided had to have high degrees of accuracy. This necessitated the need to come up with a procedure that would ensure the accuracy of such information. The best way to gauge this information provided was through the process of auditing. It therefore became a prerequisite for managers, reporting agents and accounting expertise to constantly review and summarize their reports in a way that it could be given meaning. The aim of this was to ensure sufficient objectivity in the records that were provided. It also instilled discipline in the procedures that were necessary in accounting. However, this proved not is enough as some of the stakeholders still revealed some degrees of incompetence. However, this process did not fail entirely. The process has a couple of successes that can be attributed to it. The process had o ne major success. It led to the creation of the auditing technique. One may ask how. Auditing came along as a way of ensuring that even these timely and accurate records and reports that had to be submitted were subjected to preview and analysis. The result of this was the creation of the Institute of Internal Audit in the United States of America. This was extremely important since it ensured that the organizations, whether governmental or non-governmental, came up with ways to ensure complete independence and objectivity. CITATION Der08 l 1033 (Derek Matthews, 2008)The process of auditing has its own historical journey. Initially, this technique existed with the sole aim of accounting for the government and specifically, it was concerned with record keeping. However, the industrial revolution saw auditing evolving from this level to the next. The industrial revolution, which took place between 1750 and 1850, saw the process of auditing having more serious functions. During this pe riod, auditing was given another meaning. The objectives of conducting auditing also change auditing became a necessary process with the aim of detecting fraud as well as ensuring financial accountability other than its initial function of keeping records. This is because the period of Industrial revolution was coupled with intense business growths. Businesses grew into very large enterprises. As a result, it became increasingly difficult for business owners to constantly keep watch over their businesses. This necessitated the creation of a technique that would help keep an eye on all the financial procedures. The functions of auditing were therefore given numerous branches. At this time, auditing was mainly aimed at ensuring accuracy and preventing fraud. CITATION San08 l 1033 (Sandy van Esch, 2008)In the early 20th century, there was a need to standardize the testing methods that were used by auditors as well as their reporting practices. The main reason behind this transition was to ensure uniformity in the auditing field. This period saw to it that the roles of auditors, their methods of auditing as well as their auditing practices were all comprehensive through a well-defined procedure. As a result, auditors came up with a system of examining a selected sample from a company in detail as opposed to analyzing each and every transaction made by the company in detail. This is because the role of auditors was becoming increasingly important and consequently, the demand for their services grew as well. They therefore had to come up with a system that would help greatly when it came to the issue of time consumption. This was the sampling system. However, it is important to note that the sample chosen had to be representative in the sense that the reasons for its choice needed to be justifiable. This system of sampling is still in use to date since it has been found to be less costly as well as time saving. However, it is not used all the time. Its use is subjec t to a couple of limitations. For instance, in the case of gross errors and serious fraudulent activities, sampling is used. Instead, the whole company is audited. This is because such issues require very high standards of precision. This is referred to as risk based auditing whereby it is first established whether an auditing is needed. Thereafter, a full scale audit, instead of a representative audit follows. CITATION Rob09 l 1033 (Moeller, 2009)The demand for auditing, and in this case, both internal and external auditing, has its source in the 19th century. During this time, there was the Industrial Revolution As discussed above and therefore there was a dire need of creating an accounting procedure. This was aimed at cutting down of errors that came with record keeping, checking finance misappropriation, asset misappropriation as well as cased of fraud within organizations that are not business conformed as well. The need and origin of auditing is traced to the period slightly after the evolution of accounting. In the case that someone did not trust the honesty of another man, there arose the issue of fidelity. As a result, this necessitated the need to come up with a process through which the honesty of this man could be tested. This gave rise to the process of auditing. CITATION Rob09 l 1033 (Moeller, 2009)Necessity is surely the mother of invention. It became necessary to come up with a system that could easily provide a way in which accounting was put into perspective. This led to the creation of the auditing technique. However, it is very important to note that even with the invention of auditing, there came a couple of challenges. For instance, the gap between management and action constantly increased. This made it extremely necessary to come up with a means through which businesses could be managed efficiently. The result of this was the diversification of the roles of auditing. Instead of counterchecking financial records and detecting frauds, au diting was given other functions. For instance, the technique was now using d to; ascertain the extent to which the assets of a company are held account for. This included the extent to which these assets were safeguarded from any form of losses.; checking the degree of quality of the performance with regard to the carrying out of certain responsibilities; review and appraisal of the levels of adequacy, soundness and generally the application of specific financial tools as well as tools of operation; the technique of auditing was also expected to establish the extent to which organizations, rather, the departments in organizations complied to the policies that had to set out. This was also to establish the level to which these departments complied with the set out plans and strategies of their institutions Finally, auditing was also assigned another major role. It was charged with the responsibility of ascertaining the level to which accounting and data provided by accounting could be relied on. Clearly, the functions of auditing had become diversified compared to the time when the technique was invented. CITATION Rob09 l 1033 (Moeller, 2009)With t5ime, auditing was divided into two major categories; internal auditing and external auditing. The former refers to the process by which the financial and organizational records of a company are checked by expertise within the organization. This is the reason as to why each and every organization ought to have an internal audit section. The latter, just like its name suggests involves the process of auditing by expertise from outside the organization. External auditing is extremely important in the sense that it allows non-partisan expertise to gauge the performance of the organization. As a result, external auditing is believed to give a clearer picture of what is happening in the organization. Internal auditing was charged with certain responsibilities; it was meant to assist in the process of communication within the organization in terms of the scope, the performance and the objectives of the organization. In other words, it helped to organization to establish the objectives that it had not meet so far through the gauging of the performance, it also helped to establish the successes as well as the failures of an organization. Consequently, this helped, or rather still helps organizations to come up with well laid out strategies that could ensure that they meet their objectives as well as reconcile their failures. CITATION Den07 l 1033 (Arter, 2007)The history of auditing can be said to be greatly connected to disciplines that are associated with communication of information that deals with economic events. This is regardless of whether the institution in question is part of the government or whether it is an institution is in the private sector. The development in the communication of economic activities therefore goes hand in hand with the developments in auditing. Writing for instance, le d to the need to record the exchange or transfers of economic goods. The developments in accounting and auditing created the need for the establishment of accountability of the people in authority. The benefits that came with trading as well as the economic benefits of private sector investment came as a result of having accounts of transactions whether it was transactions with others or accounts of trading activities. The reasons for the measurement in one’s permanent income or rather one’s wealth led to the need for one to be able to account for and audit his or her own equity. There was also the need of chartering companies with limited liability. This limited liability was subjected to a series of certain specifications of reporting requirements. These reporting requirements are basically reports from auditing firms. All these were as a result of the rising demand for capital with the huge business projects in the Industrial Revolution. CITATION San08 l 1033 (Sandy van Esch, 2008)Today, the process of auditing has made great milestones ever since the time of its inception. To put this issue into perspective, we have seen the various stages that auditing has gone through. The functions of auditing have also been diversified. Currently, auditing is not only aimed at detection of frauds and financial accountability of the employees of a company .Auditing has also given a platform for companies to have an insight into their own activities. This is one of the reasons as to why internal audits are carried out. It is now described as a very labor intensive job, however, very important for the success of any organization. It offers correction to organization after detecting irregularities. It also gives the way forward for companies by providing ways through which the technical financial mishaps detected in the auditing process can be avoided in future. It is also very clear that the history of auditing made a great, actually the greatest mark in his tory in the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution saw massive growth of businesses which required constant checking and counterchecking of the financial records which were subject to various manipulations by incompetent officials. Today, auditing firms are one of the major profit making firms due to the high demand of their services. Auditing has become extremely important in today’s society and its importance can never be underestimated. CITATION Der08 l 1033 (Derek Matthews, 2008) References l 1033 Arter, D. R. (2007). Quality Audits for Improved Performance. ASQ Quality Press. Derek Matthews, ‎. P. (2008). The Auditors Talk;An Oral History on the Profession. New York: Psychology Press. Moeller, R. R. (2009). Brinks Modern Internal Auditing. New York: Wiley and Sons. Sandy van Esch, ‎. P. (2008). The Principles and Practice of Auditing. Jutaonline Publishers. Source document

Catharine Parr Traills The Backwoods Of Canada English Literature Essay

Catharine Parr Traills The Backwoods Of Canada English Literature Essay Nevertheless, one of the ships officers soon dissuades Traill and her husband of this opinion as he states that, if they were closer, they would find every variety of disease, vice, poverty, filthy and famineà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬human misery in its most disgusting and maddening form. They move up river towards Quebec. However, once again, they are not allowed to go ashore due to pestilence within the city. Traills account of her experiences thus far, that is, the voyage and her first views of the Canadian landscape convey both the beauty of the vistas she perceived and their inherent dangers, as one can gather that hardship and disease were the constant companions of the lands natural beauty, which Traill is very good at describing in lyrical detail. Throughout her account, the modern reader learns interesting details of Canadian life during this era. For example, she is intrigued when the ship passes islands that have herd of cattle grazing on them. The captain explained that local farmers ferry the animals to the island on flat-bottomed boats or swim them across, if possible, and leave them to graze, with someone from the farm canoeing out to milk them on a daily basis. In Lower Canada, below Quebec, the land has a wild and rugged aspect, but Traill comments on the increased fertility as the ship approaches Montreal and how the land surrounding this city seems willing to yield her increase to a moderate exertion. Having landed in Montreal, Trail is struck by the dirty, narrow, ill-paved or unpaved streets. Ultimately, Traill and her husband settle near the town of Peterborough and become true pioneering settlers, as her husband is entitled to land due to his British military service. Furthermore, they are able to purchase land that will give them a water frontage. Throughout her letters, it is fascinating to read Traills very British take on North American life. For example, she is critical of log cabins that she views from the river where the settlers have not taken time out from survival to plant roses around their casements. Likewise, she is amazed that the sons of naval and military officers and clergymen stand behind the counter in shops or wield an axe in the woods and still maintain their rank and status among the aristocracy of the country. Likewise, she is equally surprised that the Americans she meets are polite, well-behaved people rather than the exhibiting the odious manners that she expected. Those people with the worst manners, who displayed a sense of independence that was not exactly suitable to their actual station in life were people who, like themselves, were European settlers. In particular, Traill criticizes a young Scotsman who seemed to be particularly adamant on stressing to Traill and her husband, as English aristocra ts that in the New World, he was not obliged to observe the niceties of the European class system. At every juncture in their journey, the Traills seem to have an easier time of handling the many transitions of emigration as they have money and can purchase assistance. For example, when they finally arrive at their homestead, Traills husband hired people to log up (that is, to draw the chopped timbers into heaps for burning) and clear a space for building our house upon. Nevertheless, she explains to her British mother, and in doing so also to her British readership, that they were also expected to call the bee,' that is, to provide everything necessary for the entertainment of our worthy hive, i.e., the neighbors who assemble to raise the walls of your house, shanty, barn or any other building in a raising bee.' Once again, Traill appears to be astonished that all evidence of class distinctions are laid aside in order for neighbors to help each other. It is interesting to note how Traill quickly learns to abandon the notions of what is proper, which she naturally brought with her from England, as she adapts to her new country. She comments on the need for adaptation by writing about the different peoples to whom life in Canada is well suited. For example, she says that the poor laborer suited to this life because, after a few years of hard work, he can enjoy his own log-house and the fruits of his land and see his children grow up as independent freeholders. Likewise, a rich speculator can do well in the New World. However, an aristocrat whose habits have rendered him unfit for manual labor is not suited to life in North American to the slightest degree, for if he is idle himself, his wife extravagant and discontented, and the children taught to despise laborThey will soon be brought down to ruin. When the Traill home is finished, it sounds extremely inviting. The pillars of their verandah are extremely pretty, wreathed with the luxuriant hop-vine, mixed with the scarlet creeper and morning glory, the American name for the most splendid flowering plant. They have a handsome Franklin stove with brass gallery and fender for warmth and also a brass-railed sofaCanadian painted chairs, a stained pine table, green and white curtains and a handsome Indian mat that covers the floor. Their many books occupy one side of the room, while large maps and prints cover the rough walls. Traill has a knack for description that enlivens her entire narrative, as she paints verbal portraits of landscapes and settings that enable her readers to envision what she sees and does. Sometimes, her reactions are surprising. For example, in describing the severe cold of a Canadian winter, she seems perplexed by the presence of static electricity in her clothing. Nevertheless, while suffering to some extent in the severe cold. Traill is, as always, able to find something pleasurable about the experience and she also lists the charms of this season. By the end of her narrative, Traill has totally discarded all reference that disparage her life in North America as compared to life in England and embraced freedom from convention, identifying herself as a bush-settler, writing: we bush-settler are more independent: we do what we like; we dress as we find most suitable and most convenient; we are totally without the fear of any Mr. or Mrs. Grundy; and having shaken off the trammels of Grundyism, we laugh at the absurdity of those who voluntarily forge afresh and hug their chains. From this passage, it is implied that the reference to Grundyism refers to the notions of etiquette that Traill has thoroughly rejected as inappropriate and silly within the context of frontier life. It is easy to see that a nascent sense of the Canadian national character being forged in her consciousness, as she rejects class distinctions and embraces the liberty and opportunity possible in her new life.

Inequality in the European Union (EU) Essay -- European Union Essays

Cumulative European Union (EU) enlargements to include relatively less developed countries such as Bulgaria and Romania, along with the possibility of future EU status being granted to Turkey and Albania (EC, 2011), raises further questions about inequality in the European Union. The global recession has bought the issue of labour market models and resulting inequities back into the forefront political discourse, as government cutbacks necessitate the reappraisal of welfare states and labour market policy. This essay will analyse both differing labour market models and the EU labour market as a whole to explain why EU countries have heterogeneous inequities. Overall, within countries, differing interplay of welfare states, varieties of capitalism and employment structures has a profound effect on levels of inequality within labour markets; particularly post EU-crisis when rapid change exacerbated many inequalities. Additionally, the macro EU labour market would appear to create ineq uality, particularly because of the free movement of labour. It seems despite having a labour market branded as homogenous (SiniÄ Ãƒ ¡kovà ¡, 2011), Europe’s interacting varieties of capitalism and employment legislation have created a heterogeneous continent; with equally diverse inequalities. Gosta Esping-Andersen’s 1990 book The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism remains a convenient starting point for examining the capacity different labour models have to create inequality. Despite criticism for being out-dated and of limited relevance given the homogenous nature of Andersen’s typologies, their intuitive coherence means they go some way in explaining patterns of inequality in the EU (Goodin, 1999). The liberal model of welfare capitalism puts ma... ...dersen, G. (1990). The three worlds of welfare capitalism. Cambridge: Polity Press. Hall, P., & Soskice, D. (2001). Varieties of capitalism: The institutional foundations of comparative advantage. (P. Hall & D. Soskice, Eds.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rosewarne, S. (2010). Globalisation and the Commodification of Labour: Temporary Labour Migration. The Economic and Labour Relations Review, 20(2), 99–110. Schmid, K. D., & Stein, U. (2013). Explaining Rising Income Inequality in Germany, 1991-2010. IMK, 32(1), 1–45. SiniÄ Ãƒ ¡kovà ¡, M. (2011). Homogeneity of the European Union from the Point of View of Labour Market. Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education, 17–28. Spicker, P. (2008). Social policy: themes and approaches (p. 307). Policy Press. Standing, G. (1999). Global labour flexibility: Seeking distributive justice. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Essay --

Sigmund Freud was born May 6, 1856 in the Moravian town of Přà ­bor in the Austrian Empire, which is now part of the Czech Republic. His parents’ names were Jacob and Amaila Freud; they both were Jewish. Despite their poverty, Sigmund Freud’s parents supported his education. The Panic of 1857 was the world's first world-wide economic crisis causing the family to relocate to Leipzig and eventually settle in Vienna. In 1865 Freud entered high school at the age of nine. He was a very intelligent student and graduated from the Matura, a high school exit exam with honors. Freud was accepted into the University of Vienna at age seventeen studying within the medical field. In 1882 Freud began his medical career in the psychiatric clinic at the Vienna General Hospital. He decided to enter a private practice in 1886 and specialize in nervous disorders. Sigmund Freud was one of the most influential and interesting men in the field of psychology. He was one of the first majo r social scientists to develop a theory to help explain and understand human behavior. Freud established ideas about how the human mind works and how unconscious desires control behavior. Though his work was great, others were uncertain about how unusual his ideas were. Freud’s work was based on personal perceptions. Freud is best known as the father of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis focuses on the unconscious characteristics of behavior. Freud believed that the conscious level of the mind was comparable to the tip of the iceberg which could be seen, but the unconscious mind was hidden. The unconscious mind contains aspects of the personality of which a person is unaware. When conscious the being is fully aware. One of Freud’s earliest works was Die Traumdeutung, German f... ...culine and feminine characteristics." During Sigmund Freud’s greatest years of scientific discovery, he endured thirty-three operations to his mouth due to a cancerous growth. Throughout this short, sixteen year period in his life he had published the importance of sexual motivations in Beyond the Pleasure Principle in 1920; organized data concerning the structure of the mind in The Ego and the Id in 1923 and other great works as well. Sigmund Freud died on September 23, 1939. His discoveries in the field of psychology have influenced the modern culture we live in today. Freud is most known for his theories about his theories of the libido, dreams, the mind and the unconscious. Freud’s work recognized the first efficient way of explaining the internal forces that determine human behavior. Psychoanalysis has become a dominant theory in how modern psychology works.

Teaching Critical Reflection :: Education Educational Essays

Teaching Critical Reflection The ability to reflect critically on one’s experience, integrate knowledge gained from experience with knowledge possessed, and take action on insights is considered by some adult educators to be a distinguishing feature of the adult learner (Brookfield 1998; Ecclestone 1996; Mezirow 1991). Critical reflection is the process by which adults identify the assumptions governing their actions, locate the historical and cultural origins of the assumptions, question the meaning of the assumptions, and develop alternative ways of acting (Cranton 1996). Brookfield (1995) adds that part of the critical reflective process is to challenge the prevailing social, political, cultural, or professional ways of acting. Through the process of critical reflection, adults come to interpret and create new knowledge and actions from their ordinary and sometimes extraordinary experiences. Critical reflection blends learning through experience with theoretical and technical learning to form new knowl edge constructions and new behaviors or insights. Learning by critical reflection creates new understandings by making conscious the social, political, professional, economic, and ethical assumptions constraining or supporting one’s action in a specific context (Ecclestone 1996; Mackintosh 1998). Critical reflection’s appeal as an adult learning strategy lies in the claim of intellectual growth and improvement in one’s ability to see the need for and effect personal and system change. Reflection can be a learning tool for directing and informing practice, choosing among alternatives in a practice setting, or transforming and reconstructing the social environment (Williamson 1997). Can critical reflection be taught in a classroom? Does the new knowledge created foster change? This Myths and Realities investigates the extent to which critical reflection can be taught to adult learners. How Do Adults Learn to Be Critically Reflective? Without agreement on what reflective practice is, it is difficult to decide on teaching‑learning strategies. Reflective practice may be a developmental learning process (Williamson 1997), may have different levels of attainment (Wellington 1996), and may be affected by a learner’s cognitive ability (James and Clarke 1994), willingness to engage in the process (Bright 1996; Haddock 1997), and orientation to change (Wellington 1996). However, there does seem to be some agreement that critical reflection consists of a process that can be taught to adults. Brookfield (1988) identified four processes central to learning how to be critically reflective: assumption analysis, contextual awareness, imaginative speculation, and reflective skepticism. Assumption analysis describes the activity adults engage in to bring to awareness beliefs, values, cultural practices, and social structures regulating behavior and to assess their impact on daily activities.

The Magna Carta

1. Magna Carta [1215] (52): The Magna Carta was an agreement that insured protection of noble (feudal) liberties from usurpation by the King. The Magna Carta influenced the development of common law (legal precedent), as well as constitutional principles (as seen in the United States Constitution). 2. Chief Powhatan (59): Chief Powhatan was the chief of Algonquian-speaking villages (Powhatan Confederacy) in eastern Virginia, chief of about 10,000 Indians. Powhatan took 80% of the corn his people grew and traded that and hides for weapons. As a result, the English people took over his lands. . Mercantilism (163): Mercantilism was a national program that said that the total amount of the world’s gold and silver stayed the same and only what percent of that each nation had changed then one nation could only become richer by taking another’s gold and silver and taking over its trade. As a result, nations had to develop and protect its own shipping and had to take advantage of the colonies. 4. London (Virginia) Company (57): The Virginia Company was a joint-stock between the First Colony of London and the Second Colony of Plymouth. King James had them go on a religious mission to bring the Christian religion to the natives of the colonies. The settlers trying to change the natives religion led the relations between the two to become tenser. 5. John Smith (59): John Smith was appointed by the Virginia Company to manage Jamestown. Smith was strict and made everyone work. If settlers bickered, he imprisoned them, whipped them and forced them to work. He bargained with Indians and explored and mapped the Chesapeake region. Because of him, Jamestown survived, but he was not well liked by the colonists. . Jamestown (58): Jamestown was the first permanent colony in Virginia by the Virginia Company. The 105 men built a fort, huts, a storehouse and a church. Trade with the Indians and the teachings of the Indians were the only reason Jamestown initially survived. 7. John Rolfe (62): John Rolfe was the reason tobacco became a popular crop. He got a hold of some seeds and tobacco became popular. It had a big profit and he lped the economy. It also led indentured servants to come over, boosting the population. John Rolfe also married Pocahontas, Chief Powhatan’s daughter. She married John Rolfe and they moved to London. John Rolfe was the reason for the tobacco industry in the colonies and more stability between the colonists and Indians. 8. House of Burgesses: 9. Pocahontas (63): Pocahontas was the daughter of Chief Powhatan. She saved John Smith when he trespassed. Powhatan let Smith go in exchange for weapons, beads and trinkets. She was captured in 1614 by Jamestown to try and blackmail Powhatan. She ended up converting to Christianity, changed her named to Rebecca, and married, had a kid and moved to London with John Rolfe. She was a reason Indians and colonists relations improved. 10. Sir William Berkeley (64): Sir William Berkeley was Virginia’s royal governor starting in 1642 and stayed it for the next 35 years. Berkeley favored the richest planters and the commoners rebelled against him in Bacon’s Rebellion. In the end, Berkeley regained control. 11. Headright System (63): The headright system said that anyone who bought a share in The Virginia Company could get 50 acres and 50 more if they brought servants along. Sir Edwin Sandys instituted this reform. It helped the population grow. 12. Indentured servants (62): Indentured servants were people who couldn’t afford to go to America so in exchange for labor, planters would pay for their ride over. This increased the flow of immigrants to the colonies. 13. Bacon’s Rebellion (65): Lowered tobacco prices, rising taxes and freed servants wanting Indian lands contributed to Bacon’s Rebellion. Bacon’s Rebellion grew out of the hatred for Berkeley for favoring the rich planters and hating commoners. Freed indentured servants wanted land and led them to take the Indian’s land. Berkeley didn’t support them so they rebelled. The planters and Indians started to become violent. In 1676, Bacon defied Berkeley by taking command of a group of frontier men. Bacon wanted all Indians dead and Berkeley didn’t. Bacon’s rebellion was the first struggle of common folk versus aristocrats. Berkeley regained control after hanging 23 rebels. A royal commission made a peace treaty with the Indians. The results of the rebellion were new lands opened to colonists and wealthy become more cooperative with commoners. 14. William Bradford (69): William Bradford led 100 men, women and children to the colonies aboard the Mayflower. He and the pilgrims landed at Plymouth and they built on an abandoned Indian village. Bradford led to the Indians and Pilgrims having better relations with each other and Thanksgiving. 15. City on a Hill (72): John Winthrop envisioned the Massachusetts Bay Colony as a city on a hill. Winthrop used hill metaphorically to show that he felt they would above rest of the colonies. 16. John Winthrop (72): John Winthrop was the first governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony and wanted to use the colony as a refuge for Puritans. He took advantage of the charter by the Massachusetts Bay Company by taking its charter with them, transferring government authority so they could have local control. 17. Pilgrims/separatists (69): The Pilgrims were part of the most radical section of Puritans, the Separatists (Nonconformists). They didn’t like the Church of England and decided it couldn’t be fixed so they would create their own godly congregations. Separatist leaders were imprisoned and sometimes hung. King James I wanted to eliminated them. As a result, they left and went to the colonies to escape. 18. Puritans (68): The Puritans were a group of English Protestants. The Puritans in England executed King Charles and made his son the king. The Puritans settled in New England. They were very religions and claimed to be on a divine mission to create a model Christian society. 19. Massachusetts Bay Colony (72): Massachusetts Bay Colony was intended to be a holy commonwealth. Most of the Puritans there were Congregationalists who formed self-governing churches. 20. Plymouth Colony (69): Plymouth Colony held a land grant but had no charter of government form any English authority. The Mayflower Compact governed it. Its population never rose above 7,000. 21. Mayflower Compact (69): The Mayflower Compact was made by 41 Pilgrim leaders who entered into a formal agreement to obey the laws made by the leaders of their choosing. The Mayflower Compact was the primary source of government for Plymouth Colony. 22. Anne Hutchinson (77): Anne Hutchinson argued with Puritan leaders. She lived in Boston and held sermons in her home. Soon they become popular sermons led by her. She claimed that she got revelations from the Holy Spirit that convinced her that only a few Puritan ministers preached the appropriate covenant of grace. She said the rest of them were â€Å"godless hypocrites† and incompetent. 23. Predestination: Predestination is the Calvinist theory that God has predetermined who will go to heaven and who will go to hell. This led people such as Roger Williams to question why church was necessary. 24. Roger Williams (75): Roger Williams was one of the â€Å"purest of Puritans† and was troubled by the failure of the Massachusetts Nonconformists to get rid of the Church of England. He championed liberty and said that the true covenant was between God and the individual. He posed a question that if one’s salvation depends solely upon god’s grace and you can’t affect it, why even bother having churches? Why not just let people exercise their free will in worship? 25. Pequot War (82): The spark of the Pequot War was when settlers in Massachusetts accused a Pequot of murdering a colonist. The settlers got revenge by setting fire to a Pequot village. As the Pequot’s fled, the Puritans shot and killed them. The Pequot’s refuted by attacking the English. The colonists and their allies-the Narragansett- killed hundreds of Pequots. 26. Iroquois League (96): The Iroquois League was made up for 12,000 people governed by 50 chiefs. The chiefs made decisions for all the villages and acted as peacemakers. They seized Canadian hunting grounds and defeated western tribes to hunt beaver in the region to extinction. French and Indian allies gained the advantage over them and reduced their population by a third. The Iroquois made peace with the French in 1701. 27. Quakers (98): The Quakers were the most influential of the radical religious groups. George Fox founded them in 1647. They were an extremely tolerant group of people. They believed everyone should have complete religious freedom. 28. William Penn (98): William Penn was the founder of the Quaker colony of Pennsylvania. When he took control of Pennsylvania, there was already a scattering of religions and races and he made efforts to bring in more settlers of any religion as long as they believed in God. He offered land and the colony grew rapidly. He purchased land titles from the Indians and even learned an Indian language. The Indians and colonists lived side by side in peace. 29. Atlantic Slave Trade: When plantations increased, the need for slaves increased. This led to the creation of the Atlantic Slave Trade The Atlantic Slave Trade was the selling and transporting of African slaves across the Middle Passage. However, 1 in 7 slaves died during the trip. 30. Stono Slave Rebellion (123): Mistreated slaves rebelled against their masters. The slaves who participated in this rebellion were killed and their heads were set up on mile marks to warn other slaves not to rebel. 31. Triangular Trade (135): New Englanders shipped rum to Africa which they traded for slaves, took the slaves to the West Indies and returned home with molasses which they used to make rum. In another version, they shipped provisions to the West Indies, carried sugar and molasses to England and got good manufactured in Europe. 32. Halfway Covenant (139): In 1662, an assembly of Boston ministers accepted this. It said that baptized kids of church members could get halfway membership and secure baptism for their children in turn. They couldn’t vote in church nor take Communion though. 33. Salem Witch Hysteria (139): In 1691, several teenagers met in the kitchen of the village minister. Soon, the girls began to shout, bark, grovel and twitch for no reason. They told people that three women were Satan’s servants and tormenting them. The three women were arrested. At the hearing, the â€Å"afflicted† girls had fits. One of the accused confessed and gave names of other people who she claimed were working for the devil. The governor disbanded the witch court in Salem and ordered the remaining suspects should be released. Nineteen â€Å"witches† were dead and more than 100 were in jail. Some historians say that it was all about land feuds between people. Most of the accused defied the traditional female roles, which could have been another reason. In 1692, some of the afflicted girls shouted â€Å"a witch† and began acting possessed. No one noticed so the girls stopped and left meaning it all could have been for attention. 34. Ben Franklin (150): Ben Franklin published Poor Richard’s Almanac in 1732, which was a collection of homely maxims on success and happiness. He founded a library, a fire company, helped start University of Pennsylvania and organized a debating club that became the American Philosophical Society. He created the Franklin stove, lightening rod, and glass harmonica. He was a freethinker with no true religion. He believed that people could unlock the mysteries of the universe and shape their own destinies. 35. Poor Richard’s Almanac (150): Poor Richard’s Almanac was written in 1732 by Ben Franklin. It contained a collection of homely maxims on success and happiness. 36. Jonathon Edwards (154): Jonathon Edwards was a Congregationalist minister in Massachusetts. He believed that Christians became too preoccupied with money and that religion had become too intellectual causing it to lose its emotional force. He didn’t like people who had cast off religion. He described hell and heaven, which in turn led people to become more spiritual again. 7. George Whitefield (155): George Whitefield was a minister and the catalyst of the Great Awakening. He wanted to restore religious fervor the American congregations. He preached in Philadelphia, Georgia and New England. Even Ben Franklin went to see Whitefield preach. He was responsible for a lot of religious rebirths. 38. John Lock e (150): John Locke was a philosopher who argued that humanity is a product of the environment. Therefore, the best way to improve society and human nature was to use and improve reason. 39. Enlightenment (149): The Enlightenment was all about reason, science and freedoms. Enlightened thinkers were willing to disregard religious beliefs in favor of more rational ideas. As a result, the colonies became less religious. 40. Great Awakening (154): The Great Awakening affected all 13 of the colonies. George Whitefield basically started it. It led people to embrace religion again as they did before the Enlightenment. 41. New Lights (158): New Lights was one of the divisions of the Congregationalists. Many went over to the Baptists or Presbyterians. This was a result of the Great Awakening undermining churches. 42. Old Lights (158): Old Lights was one of the divisions of the Congregationalists. This was a result of the Great Awakening undermining churches. 43. Navigation Acts (163): The Navigation Act of 1651 required that goods imported to England or the colonies must be on English ships whose crew was mostly English. The Navigation Act of 1660 said that the crew had to be at least ? English, not just mostly. It also said certain goods could only be shipped to England or other English colonies. The Navigation Act of 1663 said that all colonial imports from Europe to the colonies be offloaded, and have duty paid on them before their reshipment to the colonies. The Navigation Acts gave England a monopoly over tobacco and sugar. 44. Salutary neglect (168): Salutary neglect was Walpole’s relaxed policy toward the colonies that gave them greater freedoms. It ultimately led to the colonies having political independence and seeking to become independent from England. 45. George Washington (178): George Washington went to the French fort Fort Le Bouef because the French built forts in Pennsylvania to defend their interests after England got control over more land near Virginia. He went and asked the French to move and they refused. He led volunteers and their Iroquois allies to built a fort where the French had built theirs. He led an ambush on the French. The deaths during were the first tragedies of the French and Indian War. George Washington surrendered after the French attacked a month later. 46. Albany Plan of Union (179): The Albany Congress created The Albany Plan of Union in 1754. It called for a chief executive, supreme governor, and a supreme assembly. It was the basis of the current democracy system. 7. King George III (183): King George III wanted to seek peace and eventually end the French and Indian War and he forced Pitt out of office. He gave England control of most of the United States. 48. Join or Die (180): Join or Die was the first political cartoon created by Ben Franklin. It was created to unite the colonies against the French in 1754. 49. French and Indian War (177): The French and Indian War began after Virginias crossed into French territory to trade with Indians and survey land granted to them by the king. This made the French mad. In 1755, a British fleet captured Nova Scotia and killed most of its French population. The French had a victory, which demonstrated that backwoods warfare depended upon Indian allies and frontier tactics. In 1756 the colonial war became the Seven Years’ War in Europe. Pitt offered people of the colonies subsidies for their help in the war effort. The tides turned in 1758 when the English captured a French fort and the Iroquois (French allies) called off attacks on the English. 50. Treaty of Paris of 1763 (183): The Treaty of Paris of 1763 ended the French and Indian War and ended French power in America. England took all French possession east of the Mississippi River and Spanish Florida. England invited the Spanish to stay there, but most left and sold their land really cheap to the English. The lands given to the English from the French weren’t the French’s to give, it was Indian land. The Indians struck back and killed people and raided forts. These attacks convinced most colonists that Indians were bad.

Critique for the Potentials, Network, Motivations, and Barriers: Steps Towards Participation in Social Movements

Critique for the Potentials, Network, Motivations, and Barriers: Steps towards participation in social movements. The four factors to form social movement are mobilization potentials, forming and activating recruiting networks, raising the motivation to participate and overcome the barriers of participation. Becoming a participant also required four different steps: becoming part of the mobilization potential, becoming target of the mobilization attempts, becoming motivated to participated and overcome the barriers to participate.To define the mobilization potential, the term referred to the people who take a positive attitude to the social movement. Attitudes consist of means and goals toward the movement. With the respect toward means, the term is related to the willingness to become engaged in conventional forms of political behavior, the protest potential in abbreviation. With the respect toward the goals, the concept is related to manifest political potential which means a group of people with a common identity and sharing the common goals. People who are not involved in the mobilization potential won’t consider participating in the movement activities.To explain the recruitment network and the mobilization attempts. Despite the mobilizing consensus and the mobilization potential, if these factors can’t be linked to the recruitment network, the mobilization won’t be realized. The networks identifies whether the people became the target of mobilization attempts. People can be target by the mobilization attempts by media, mail, relationships with organizations and friends. Different routes get a different influence on people. The significance of friendships reaching potential participants has been emphasized in many researches.The third factor is the motivation to participate. The motivation is defined as the function of the perceived costs and the benefits of participation. Two different kinds of incentives are identified as the collect ive incentives and the selective incentives. With the respect to the collective incentives, a multiplicative relationship is assumed between the value of the collective goods and the expectancy of the success. With the respect of the collective incentives, the soft or social incentives are important in determining the willingness to participate while the effect of the hard or nonsocial incentives is ambiguous.Such incentives appeared different effects in different environment. Since the movements must communicate to the potential participants to which extent the incentives are controlled by the movement, the mobilization of consensus is also a key part of this stage. The fourth factor is the barriers to participation. Motivation and barriers interact to active participation. The more people are motivated, the higher barrier they can overcome. Maintaining or increasing motivation or removing barriers are the two strategies for the movement.The paper gave the data on all the four step s of the mobilization campaign for the peace demonstration in The Hague in 1983 which is the largest demonstration the Netherlands had ever experienced. The authors conducted surveys before and after the demonstration in sake to analyze the participation behavior. In the survey, the mobilization potential, mobilization target, motivations, participation, attitudes, incentives, participation barriers, leftism of party vote and demographics of the participant have been measured. In each of the process toward the final demonstration considerable amount of people drop out.Not being the target of the mobilization attempts, unable to overcome the barriers, could not arouse the motivation to participate lead to the drop out situation. The author analyzes those factors carefully in the paper to explain the result. The first step is the mobilization potential. Authors compared the age, gender, education, vote behavior, and attitudinal factors to analyze the people whether belong to the mobil ization or not. With the respect to the demographics, olds and people who votes for the right party tend not belong to the mobilization potential.People from the mobilization potential were more concern about and fight against about the missile deployment and sign a petition to against the deployment. The two groups show no difference on the possibility to control the arms race no matter in which way this would be achieved. The political preference is also a factor influence the motivation potential. People who stay outside the mobilization potential of movement against the missile were mostly from the right wing. The entire left wing of the Dutch society was the part of the motivation potential.The author also found that the people who did not belong to the motivation potential got higher education level which is contradict to previous study. In conclusion, the mobilization potential of the movement covered a wide range of social categories rather than restricted to categories thou ght to be typical of the mobilization potentials of new social movements like new middle class, well-educated professionals and youth. The second step is to become the target of the mobilization attempts. Whether a person has formal or informal links with local peace movement is used to test whether person have been the target of mobilization attempt.Most of the mobilization potentials were reached by mobilization attempts by formal networks like visit peace stand, reading newspapers or reached by organizations. Individual with several or even many acquaintances who tend to go to the demonstration are defined as have an informal recruitment network to the movement. Only 30% of the respondent got several informal links. The ratio of the mobilization potential has no link, formal link or informal link with the peace movement networks are quite the same at around 20%. 40% of the people got both kinds of link to the movement.This indicates that people who belonged to the mobilization po tential had been as frequently targets of mobilization attempts as people outside the mobilization potential. People outside the potential have more formal links than the people within the potential. But with fewer informal links doesn’t prevent the government organization to approach these people. Gender factors have no independent effect on the links to government networks. Highly educated people appeared to create new mobilization potentials because they connected to the social network engaged in recruitment more.Informal networks are far more important than the formal ones in arousal of the motivation to participate. The third step is the motivation to participate. The motivation depends on the specific blend of costs and benefits perceived. With the respect of the collective incentives, in this demonstration, none of the respondent was optimistic about the outcome. In this protection, the potential participants estimated the number of participants more than the nonpartic ipant did, this is contradict to the finding that people tend to participate more if they expect others will do so as well.But in certain conditions, people tend to participate less when they believe other people will. With the respect of the selective cost and benefit, knowing more people will increase the tendency one goes to the demonstration. The nonsocial cost of the demonstration is low. In the regression analysis, the result shows that the collective incentives were more important than the selective incentives in determining the motivation to participate. Due to the small sample size, the stage of overcome the barriers to participate cannot be explain.Previous papers have explained the nonparticipation in many points of views. Free rider problem has been used to explain the nonparticipation phenomena. In some past research, free rider theory has been used to explain the non-participation. In this research, the author explains the non-participation by the four steps towards th e participation. This paper also reveals that the attitudes toward to goal were important determinant of willingness to participate.The network and ideological incentives are another important factor affect peoples’ participation decision. In this paper, the author gives four stages to explain why people would like to participate in social movement or not. The issue the author does not mention a lot is the institutional factors. How the institution can courage people to participate the movement and how they can control the movement can be studied. The problem in the paper is the sample size may be a little too small. This may cause some statistical problem during the research.